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Future kelp forest management will therefore rely more heavily on technologies that enhance spatial coverage, increase automation, and reduce costs.\n\nThis problem is particularly pronounced for subsurface kelp forests, which require in-water data collection methods. Traditional methods are often costly, and slow, and require intensive diver time and data processing. Innovations in underwater image collection and automated robotics are, however, helping to solve this problem. By generating cost-effective, large-scale, georeferenced image datasets, autonomous and non-autonomous camera systems are beginning to significantly reduce the burden on divers. However, classifying these images manually requires many hours of work and delays the sharing and use of information, effectively limiting their full potential. Recent advances in machine learning (ML) capabilities are providing key opportunities to automate underwater image analysis, reducing bottlenecks and making better use of these large-scale datasets.[1](/citation/sowk2-6-1/)\n\n*AI image-processing tools are 24 times faster than manual processing*\n\nWe use two of these new tools, Urchinbot and Habibot, to detect sea urchins[2](/citation/sowk2-6-2/) and kelp habitat[3](/citation/sowk2-6-3/) in northeastern Aotearoa New Zealand and southeastern Australia. AI image-processing tools are 24 times faster than manual processing and enable rapid, accurate detection of kelp loss and sea urchin abundance. Importantly, they also provide measures of detection confidence and can incorporate human verification where desired. \n\nIt is important to note that underwater imagery relies on visual information that can be obscured by low image resolution, poor water clarity, uneven lighting, and motion blur.[4](#bookmark=id.38dmhdpdkz63) Future technological advances and integration with other sensor types can help reduce but never entirely eliminate these issues. Collectively, these tools and others like them hold considerable promise for future conservation efforts, but communication and standardisation across workflows and platforms will be important to maximise their benefits. These approaches will therefore likely be a useful component of the kelp forest monitoring toolbox but not a complete substitute for traditional methods.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad61d8f02dec18e5e5842ea\" />\nFigure 6.1. Urchinbot and Habibot AI toolkit in action. Together, these tools can rapidly identify urchin species (black boxes), provide patch-level habitat classifications (coloured points) and provide a whole-frame habitat prediction from images sourced from a range of camera platforms used across northeastern New Zealand and southeastern Australia. \n\n## 6.2 Genetic preservation of kelp through cryo- and biobanking\n\n**Cintia Iha, Wouter Visch, Anusuya Willis**\n\nAs kelp forest populations and their genetic diversity are being lost, biobanks play a key role in supporting kelp conservation. These facilities allow the long-term storage of the genetic material needed to conserve kelp populations for years. Importantly, kelp biobanks can preserve a wide variety of strains, safeguard genetic resources, support selective breeding, and provide a reliable, readily available source of kelp tissue for research, cultivation, and restoration.\n\nTo establish a valuable biobank, it is essential that the strains are strategically collected across their geographic range and genetically characterised to assess levels of diversity and differentiation among populations. This information is fundamental for designing safe and successful restoration programmes. Genetic screening can also detect markers associated with adaptive traits, such as heat tolerance, providing valuable information for conservation.\n\nKelp biobanking uses two approaches: maintaining living cultures and cryopreservation. \n\nLiving gametophyte cultures: Laminarian kelps have two stages in their life cycle, including a microscopic gametophyte. These gametophytes provide a continuous source of reproductive material that can be maintained for many years under stable laboratory conditions (low temperature, stable nutrients, and red light). Maintaining living gametophyte cultures successfully requires dedicated facilities and regular maintenance, as cultures decline in quality when maintained for many years. As a result, adequate infrastructure and skilled technicians are needed to sustain biobanks and their benefits over the long term. \n\nCryopreservation: A complementary approach to living kelp biobanking is cryopreservation, which enables the long-term storage of kelp genetic resources at ultra-low temperatures (typically in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C). Kelp gametophytes are particularly suitable for cryobanking because they can be recovered and cultured after thawing, eliminating the need for continuous maintenance and reducing risks associated with contamination, genetic drift, or equipment failure. While such longevity is beneficial, substantial resources are needed to maintain these biobanks indefinitely.\n\nCryobanking is now also being developed for fucoid kelps, which lack a gametophyte life-history stage. For these species, cryobanking instead relies on preserving gametes or germlings.[5](/citation/sowk2-6-5/) Advances in biobanking, genomic sequencing, and cryopreservation are expected to transform kelp conservation from simple strain preservation to strategic management of adaptive genetic diversity. Future biobanks will likely integrate genomic information with cryobanked collections, enabling the identification, preservation, and use of populations with desirable traits and enhanced restoration potential.\n\n*Nationally and internationally coordinated kelp biobanking networks could provide a global safeguard against biodiversity loss while supporting conservation and restoration.*\n\nKelp cryobanking and biobanks are essential to safeguarding the future of kelp forests. Effective biobanks require strategically collected samples and genetic and physiological characterisation to establish a beneficial, viable, and fit-for-purpose collection.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad61e8b02dec18e5e5842ed\" />\n\n## 6.3 Genetic selection and manipulation in kelp species\n**Brandon Vong, Kelly DeWeese, Jaycee Lanza, Sergey Nuzhdin**\n\nGenetic tools are opening new possibilities for how kelp forests might be restored and managed in a changing ocean. Kelp researchers now have access to reference genomes[6](/citation/sowk2-6-6/) and increasingly detailed information about the genes associated with growth, reproduction, and environmental tolerance. However, the practical tools needed to deliberately alter kelp genetics are still at an early stage.\n\nIn the near term, the most likely application is selective breeding informed by genomics. Researchers can identify naturally occurring genetic variation associated with desirable traits, such as faster growth or greater tolerance to heat, and use this information to guide which individuals are crossed.[7](/citation/sowk2-6-7/) Because this approach works with genetic variation already present within kelp populations, it does not require direct modification of DNA.\n\nMore targeted approaches, including CRISPR-based gene editing, could eventually allow researchers to alter specific traits directly. Proof-of-concept genetic engineering tools have been demonstrated in kelps, but practical applications remain limited.[8](/citation/sowk2-6-8/) Potential uses include improving thermal tolerance, increasing productivity, or developing sterile or sporeless cultivars that could reduce the risk of genes spreading into wild populations.[9](/citation/sowk2-6-9/)\n\nThese technologies may become increasingly relevant as restoration confronts climate change. Restoring a kelp population to the conditions in which it historically existed will not be enough if those conditions are rapidly changing. Selective breeding, assisted adaptation, and, potentially, gene editing could help produce kelp better able to survive future temperatures and other environmental pressures.[7](/citation/sowk2-6-7/),[10](/citation/sowk2-6-10/)\n\nHowever, greater ability to modify kelp also brings greater responsibility. Introducing genetically modified kelp into the ocean raises questions about gene flow, ecological interactions, reversibility, and appropriate scales of use. Robust monitoring and clear safeguards would be needed before such approaches could move from experimental systems into open ecosystems.\n\nThe key question is therefore not simply whether kelp can be genetically modified, but when and where genetic intervention might be justified. Researchers, restoration practitioners, Indigenous peoples, communities, regulators and policymakers will need to determine acceptable uses and risks together. Genetics could become an important part of the restoration toolbox, but its role should be guided by clear conservation goals, ecological evidence, and appropriate governance.\n\n## 6.4 Kelpwatch: mapping kelp by satellite\n**Tom Bell**\n\nKelp forests form incredible, structurally complex, and rich ecosystems. And while these forests are extensive, they are also dynamic. Species like bull kelp (*Nereocystis luetkeana)* can form dense canopies within a single season, and those canopies can disappear even faster after a disturbance. Observations have typically lagged behind this rapid pace of change, as field surveys generate precise data but cover limited areas and are collected intermittently. As a result, managers are routinely asked to detect and respond to ecosystem changes months or years after the changes have occurred.\n\nKelpwatch ([www\\.kelpwatch.org](http://www.kelpwatch.org)) addresses these issues for kelp forests that form visible surface canopies. Created in partnership with The Nature Conservancy, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, UCLA, and UC Santa Barbara, the platform processes over four decades of Landsat imagery into open-access, seasonal data on emergent kelp canopy that can be freely visualised, queried, and downloaded. Importantly, the data are relevant at multiple scales, from a single bay to continental coastlines. Coverage has expanded from the west coast of North America to Alaska, Peru, Argentina, the Falkland Islands, South Africa, and Namibia.\n\nThese data are a valuable tool for resource management. The California Department of Fish and Wildlife incorporated the canopy record into its Enhanced Status Report for giant kelp and bull kelp and has used it to screen candidate restoration sites. More broadly, the satellite archive provides the historical baselines upon which conservation decisions depend. Declines in kelp canopy are difficult to interpret without knowledge of prior conditions, and for most of the world's coastline, no field survey records exist.\n\n*For most of the world's coastline, no field survey records exist.*\n\nWhile these near real-time canopy data are useful, important limitations remain. For example, subsurface and understorey kelps are not visible, and canopy area alone provides no information on associated animals or whether the kelp is reproductively healthy. The current resolution misses narrow fringing beds, and cloud cover can obscure observations when and where they are most needed. Satellite monitoring therefore complements, rather than replaces, field surveys, which remain essential for science and management.\n\nNewer satellite systems such as Sentinel-2 and commercial constellations (e.g., Planet) will improve spatial and temporal resolution. Hyperspectral sensors such as NASA's EMIT and planned missions such as NASA's EAGLE programme and ESA's CHIME offer the potential to detect species composition and habitat condition in addition to canopy cover.\n\n## 6.5 Selective breeding for climate-resilient kelp forest restoration\n**Cecilia Biancacci, Cawthron Institute**\n\nAs ocean conditions continue to change, there is hope that selective kelp breeding can help restored populations adapt to new environmental conditions. Selective breeding has substantially improved the cultivation of kelp, particularly in Asia, where controlled crossing and selection have enhanced production traits.[11](/citation/sowk2-6-11/) However, its application to kelp forest restoration remains experimental. Current initiatives focus on identifying naturally resilient individuals, crossing genotypes, or propagating selected material, while long-term, multi-generation breeding programmes have yet to be established.[12](/citation/sowk2-6-12/)\n\nRestoration objectives are more complex than producing kelp that survives transplantation. They aim to establish genetically diverse, self-sustaining populations that reproduce, recruit new generations, and persist under future conditions. Achieving this will depend on using natural variation within kelp populations to identify traits that support long-term resilience, including thermal tolerance, growth, reproductive performance, and disease resistance.[11](/citation/sowk2-6-11/),[12](/citation/sowk2-6-12/)\n\nIn the wild, we hope to find natural genetic variations that are beneficial for new populations. Experimental studies have identified kelp family lines with enhanced tolerance to warming, but this tolerance is not reliably predicted by temperatures in their native habitat.[13](/citation/sowk2-6-13/) Evidence for local adaptation varies with genetic background, environment, and ecological pressures.[14](/citation/sowk2-6-14/) As a result, we need further research to understand what reliably predicts adaptability or tolerance in kelp forests.\n\n*Experimental studies have identified kelp family lines with enhanced tolerance to warming, but this tolerance is not reliably predicted by temperatures in their native habitat.*\n\nOnce we do find a desirable population, we must still make sure that tolerance can be validated across multiple sites, environments, and generations. We should not measure success only by early survival and growth, but also by how that kelp functions in its natural environment (reproduction, natural recruitment, genetic diversity, and the recovery of broader ecosystem functions).[12](/citation/sowk2-6-12/),[14](/citation/sowk2-6-14/)\n\nWhile selective breeding could provide real benefits, we must exercise significant caution as well. Even one generation of nursery propagation can reduce genetic diversity, increase inbreeding, and favour traits suited to artificial conditions rather than the wild.[15](/citation/sowk2-6-15/) Responsible implementation will require genetically diverse broodstock, replicated field trials, long-term monitoring, strong biosecurity, and clear governance. As we are altering the genetic composition of our ocean ecosystems, any decision-making must involve Indigenous peoples, local communities, scientists, and stakeholders.[12](/citation/sowk2-6-12/),[16](/citation/sowk2-6-16/)\n\nBy increasing survival, reproductive success and long-term persistence, selective breeding could become a valuable tool for improving restoration outcomes as ocean warming intensifies. However, it should complement rather than replace efforts to protect existing kelp forests, restore habitats, and address the underlying drivers of decline.[12](/citation/sowk2-6-12/),[16](/citation/sowk2-6-16/)\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad61f7102dec18e5e5842f0\" />\n\n## 6.6 Rewilding marine food webs with predator reintroductions\n**Marianne Frantzen, Casey Benkwitt, Jono Wilson**\n\nRewilding is emerging as a promising approach to kelp forest restoration. Rather than restoring habitat alone, it seeks to rebuild the species interactions and ecological processes that help ecosystems regulate themselves.\n\nThis is particularly relevant where predator losses have contributed to sea urchin population increases and persistent barrens. Human-led urchin removal can trigger rapid kelp regrowth, but sustained recovery may remain difficult if the underlying food-web imbalance persists.\n\nIn northern Norway, declines in predatory fish contributed to an ecosystem shift in the 1970s, when extensive kelp forests were transformed into urchin barrens that persist in many areas today.[17](/citation/sowk2-6-17/) The BlueRewilding project is testing whether rebuilding populations of Atlantic wolffish (*Anarhichas lupus*), a native sea urchin predator, could help maintain restored kelp forests. It is developing techniques for future pilot releases while testing whether predator recovery can reduce reliance on repeated grazer removal.\n\nA parallel effort is underway on the west coast of North America. Predatory sunflower sea stars (*Pycnopodia helianthoides*) declined by more than 90% across much of their range following sea star wasting disease beginning in 2013\\.[18](/citation/sowk2-6-18/) In northern California, their loss coincided with severe ocean warming events and contributed to expanding urchin populations and subsequent kelp declines. Modelling suggests sunflower sea star recovery could help control urchins and complement interventions such as urchin removal and kelp seeding.[19](/citation/sowk2-6-19/),[20](/citation/sowk2-6-20/) The Pycnopodia Recovery Working Group is coordinating efforts to advance disease research, captive rearing, and small-scale experimental reintroductions; see Roadmap to Recovery.[21](/citation/sowk2-6-21/)\n\nPredator reintroduction also carries risks. Released animals may fail to survive or remain in target areas, and restored predators could affect non-target species. Ecological responses may also vary among locations, meaning predator restoration cannot be assumed to recreate historical food webs automatically. \n\nFor these reasons, the field is moving cautiously from **predator recovery as a conservation goal towards predator recovery as an ecosystem-restoration tool**. The next step is replicated trials that test survival, movement, predation, disease risk, and ecosystem responses alongside conventional kelp-restoration approaches.\n\nAs we seek to restore kelp forests, it is important that we consider not only how we restore associated biodiversity but how that biodiversity may enable restoration itself.\n"},"options":{"text":""},"openGraph":{"title":null,"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation.\n"},"image":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792416625/kelp-forest-alliance/page/6-0-new-technologies_thumbnail__Clipboard-1_1379x758_pxgu5b.webp","url2x":null,"thumbnails":{"card":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_480/v1792416625/kelp-forest-alliance/page/6-0-new-technologies_thumbnail__Clipboard-1_1379x758_pxgu5b.webp","url2x":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_960/v1792416625/kelp-forest-alliance/page/6-0-new-technologies_thumbnail__Clipboard-1_1379x758_pxgu5b.webp"},"bubble":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_64/v1792416625/kelp-forest-alliance/page/6-0-new-technologies_thumbnail__Clipboard-1_1379x758_pxgu5b.webp","url2x":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_128/v1792416625/kelp-forest-alliance/page/6-0-new-technologies_thumbnail__Clipboard-1_1379x758_pxgu5b.webp"}}}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation."},"outro":{"text":""},"type":{"id":"671ef8301291fdccdbaa3afd","name":"Report","slug":"report"},"themeMode":null,"bannerThemeMode":null,"orderNumber":7,"layout":{"id":"65d5940a1368b052bf6ff14c","name":"Content","slug":"content","component":"PageLayoutContent"},"authors":[{"id":"6a73eb42fa70d71611ce66fe","name":"Arie Spyksma","slug":"arie-spyksma","path":"/people/arie-spyksma","organisation":null,"linkedin":null,"photo":null,"positions":[]},{"id":"65d594121368b052bf6ff269","name":"Kelsey 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Article","authors":[],"authorShowsEtAl":null,"edition":null,"publication":null,"date":null,"accessDate":null,"startPage":null,"volume":null,"footnoteNumber":18,"year":null},{"slug":"sowk2-6-19","url":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1897","name":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B Article","authors":[],"authorShowsEtAl":null,"edition":null,"publication":null,"date":null,"accessDate":null,"startPage":null,"volume":null,"footnoteNumber":19,"year":null},{"slug":"sowk2-6-20","url":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-2664.70448","name":"Journal of Applied Ecology Article","authors":[],"authorShowsEtAl":null,"edition":null,"publication":null,"date":null,"accessDate":null,"startPage":null,"volume":null,"footnoteNumber":20,"year":null},{"slug":"sowk2-6-21","url":"https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/tnc_Roadmap_to_Recovery_for_the_Sunflower_Sea_Star_Nov2022.pdf","name":"Roadmap to Recovery for the Sunflower Sea Star","authors":[],"authorShowsEtAl":null,"edition":null,"publication":null,"date":null,"accessDate":null,"startPage":null,"volume":null,"footnoteNumber":21,"year":null}],"pages":[],"people":[],"imageAssets":[{"id":"6ad61f7102dec18e5e5842f0","slug":"tom-burd-wylies-planting-sep-2023-46-4959-x-3310-webp","name":"Tom-Burd-Wylies-Planting-Sep-2023-46_4959x3310.webp","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/tom-burd-wylies-planting-sep-2023-46-4959-x-3310-webp_image__Tom-Burd-Wylies-Planting-Sep-2023-46_4959x3310_qbrkax","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792417639/kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/tom-burd-wylies-planting-sep-2023-46-4959-x-3310-webp_image__Tom-Burd-Wylies-Planting-Sep-2023-46_4959x3310_qbrkax.webp","url2x":null}},{"id":"6ad61e8b02dec18e5e5842ed","slug":"kelp","name":"Kelp","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/kelp_image__Clipboard-1_1379x758_aptp49","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792417412/kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/kelp_image__Clipboard-1_1379x758_aptp49.webp","url2x":null}},{"id":"6ad61d8f02dec18e5e5842ea","slug":"fig-6-1-urchinbot-and-habibot-ai-toolkit-in-action","name":"Fig 6.1 Urchinbot and Habibot AI toolkit in action. ","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/fig-6-1-urchinbot-and-habibot-ai-toolkit-in-action_image__6_Fig_6.1_hsgl96","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792417152/kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/fig-6-1-urchinbot-and-habibot-ai-toolkit-in-action_image__6_Fig_6.1_hsgl96.png","url2x":null}}]},"parent":{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6acdd00bbdeded6c37dcd41e","name":"State of the World's Kelp 26","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26","slug":"state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26","title":"State of the World's Kelp Forests Report 2026","subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"content":{"text":""},"children":[{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad4a34121102692df900752","name":"Forewords","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/forewords","slug":"forewords","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"\n\nJulianna Sullivan – Port Gamble S’Kallam Tribe\nyaʔyáʔnəŋ̕ u cxʷ?\n(Are you listening?)\nSome of my earliest memories are sitting cross-legged on the floor of my preschool classroom, quietly watching as the grandmothers sang us our songs. In their hands was a rattle made from bull kelp, its rhythm carrying our language, our teachings, and the voices of those who came before us. Though we were taught to listen with respect and intention, there was something about the sound of the kelp rattle and the grandmothers' voices that drew us in. Even as young children, we knew those moments held something sacred.\nYears later, kelp would carry me far beyond my own shoreline.\nKelp introduced me to Indigenous relatives from coastlines I had never walked, whose languages I do not speak, yet whose hearts recognised something familiar in my own. Although our languages, traditions, and coastlines are beautifully distinct, something remarkable happened when we gathered. In every story, every laugh, every song, and every teaching, we found reflections of our own relationships with kelp. What once felt like isolated experiences became part of a much larger story—one that has been unfolding along coastlines around the world since time immemorial.\nEach gathering felt like drawing water from a deep well. Every person arrived carrying teachings from their own homeland, entrusted to them by their ancestors and communities. As those teachings were shared with humility and received with gratitude, the well grew deeper and purer. No one left with less. Somehow, we all left carrying more.\nMi'kmaq Elder Albert Marshall's teaching of Etuaptmumk, or Two-Eyed Seeing, became a guiding light for our journey. One eye recognises the strengths of our Indigenous ways of knowing, the other the strengths of Western science. It is only with both eyes open that we can better understand our kelp forests and find ways to better care for the world around us.\nAs kelp forests face unprecedented challenges, this growing circle of Indigenous kelp stewards reminds us that we are not alone. Across oceans, we are reconnecting to share knowledge, strengthen one another, and remember what the tides have always known—that the ocean connects us all.\nMy hope is that this spirit ripples outward, inspiring us to approach this work with curiosity, humility, and relationships rooted in respect, reciprocity, and care for the living world.\nw̕ yaʔyáʔnəŋ cn.\n(Yes, I am listening.)\n\n\nCraig Foster – Sea Change\nI’m at the tip of Africa in the Great African Seaforest. I watch in awe. A female pyjama shark is attempting to attach one of her eggs to a kelp holdfast by rotating her body around and around to weave the egg case thread into the kelp. Then something happened that I could never have imagined. A male pyjama shark appeared and repeatedly placed his body as protection between the female and any threat. As far as I know, this kind of protective behaviour is unknown in sharks.\nOnce the egg case was safely attached, both sharks moved away. Now the tiny shark would feed on the yolk inside the egg for at least six months before hatching, vulnerable to predation from starfish and whelks. I stared at the newly laid egg and felt a deep vulnerability in myself, because something told me that the survival of this endangered species was woven into my own survival. We feel separate, but that’s not actually the case, as biodiversity health and human health are fundamentally linked.\nOur future survival depends on our relationship with Mother Nature. Nurturing that relationship is the most important single thing we can do to support life and the coming lives of the next generation.\nKelp forests are places on Earth Mother’s body that have great wealth and density of species. They represent reservoirs of hope. They are amongst the most fragile and critical places to look after. Each act of caring and protection is an act of self-care. All our lives, animal and human, rest in her arms.\n"}},"intro":{"text":""},"orderNumber":1,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad4bfee21102692df90075d","name":"1.0 Introduction – Welcome to Kelp Forests","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/1-0-introduction-welcome-to-kelp-forests","slug":"1-0-introduction-welcome-to-kelp-forests","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n1. Kelp forests cover one-third of our world’s coastlines.\n2. Areas within 50 km of a kelp forest are home to 950 million people and account for 18% of global GDP.\n3. 40–60% of these systems have declined in the last 50 years.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Key takeaways**\n\n1\\. Kelp forests cover one-third of our world’s coastlines.\n\n2\\. Areas within 50 km of a kelp forest are home to 950 million people and account for 18% of global GDP.\n\n3\\. 40–60% of these systems have declined in the last 50 years."},"orderNumber":2,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6035902dec18e5e58419b","name":"2.0 Benefits of Kelp Forests","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","slug":"2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n\nKelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over 950 million people around the world.\n\nThe potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is over US$500 billion per year.\n\nKelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.\n\nNearly 600,000 tonnes of wild kelp are harvested each year.\n\nKelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately 32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.\n\n\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Key takeaways**\n\n1. Kelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over **950 million people around the world.**\n\n2. The potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is **over US$500 billion per year.**\n\n3. Kelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) **generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.**\n\n4. Nearly **600,000 tonnes of wild kelp** are harvested each year.\n\n5. Kelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately **32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.**"},"orderNumber":3,"banner":{"name":"Kelp chapter 2","slug":"kelp-chapter-2","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad607a102dec18e5e584222","name":"3.0 Conservation Actions and Priorities","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/3-0-conservation-actions-and-priorities","slug":"3-0-conservation-actions-and-priorities","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n1) As the threats facing kelp forests are diverse, so are the methods for conserving, protecting, and managing these ecosystems. There is no universal approach, and conservation must be adapted to the local context.2) Monitoring is the most common type of kelp conservation used across regions.3) Communities are increasingly involved in kelp conservation projects.4) Indigenous stewardship, based on deep connections to local kelp forests, provides a complementary model for kelp conservation.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"## Key takeaways\n\n1) As the **threats facing kelp forests are diverse**, so are the methods for conserving, protecting, and managing these ecosystems. There is no universal approach, and conservation must be adapted to the local context.   \n2) Monitoring is the most common type of kelp conservation used across regions.  \n3) Communities are increasingly involved in kelp conservation projects.  \n4) Indigenous stewardship, based on deep connections to local kelp forests, provides a complementary model for kelp conservation."},"orderNumber":4,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6116f02dec18e5e584292","name":"4.0 Protected Areas","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/4-0-protected-areas","slug":"4-0-protected-areas","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key Takeaways\n\nAround 23% of the global kelp biome overlaps with a protected area. This is an increase from 16% in 2024.  \nThirteen regions have more than 30% of their kelp biome within protected areas, while 23 regions remain below this level.  \nProtected-area coverage is highest in regions including the Sub-Antarctic Islands, Atlantic France, Japan, South Australia, Atlantic Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean, California, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Argentina, Western Australia, Washington, and Chile.  \nStrong protection of kelp forest ecosystems is very rare. Only 1.2% of the global kelp biome can currently be confidently identified as highly protected, with an additional 1.86% identified as moderately protected.  \nSeveral regions remain particularly under-protected, including Aotearoa New Zealand, the Russian and Canadian Arctic, eastern Canada, China, and Tasmania.\n\n"}},"intro":{"text":"Key Takeaways\n\n1. Around **23% of the global kelp biome** overlaps with a **protected area. This is an increase from 16%** in 2024.  \n2. **Thirteen regions have more than 30% of their kelp biome within protected areas,** while 23 regions remain below this level.  \n3. Protected-area coverage is highest in regions including the Sub-Antarctic Islands, Atlantic France, Japan, South Australia, Atlantic Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean, California, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Argentina, Western Australia, Washington, and Chile.  \n4. Strong protection of kelp forest ecosystems is very rare. **Only 1.2% of the global kelp biome** can currently be confidently **identified as highly protected**, with an additional 1.86% identified as moderately protected.  \n5. Several regions remain particularly under-protected, including Aotearoa New Zealand, the Russian and Canadian Arctic, eastern Canada, China, and Tasmania."},"orderNumber":5,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad618a702dec18e5e5842b7","name":"5.0 Restoration","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/5-0-restoration","slug":"5-0-restoration","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nRestoration is expanding around the world, but progress remains uneven. A small number of larger programmes are showing that kelp forests can be restored at meaningful scales, while many projects remain small, experimental, or difficult to sustain and expand. Here, we highlight the main approaches being used and examine examples where restoration has succeeded at scale, focusing on the methods, partnerships, funding, and long-term management that have helped make recovery possible.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nRestoration is expanding around the world, but progress remains uneven. A small number of larger programmes are showing that kelp forests can be restored at meaningful scales, while many projects remain small, experimental, or difficult to sustain and expand. Here, we highlight the main approaches being used and examine examples where restoration has succeeded at scale, focusing on the methods, partnerships, funding, and long-term management that have helped make recovery possible."},"orderNumber":6,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad61c2202dec18e5e5842d1","name":"6.0 New Technologies","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/6-0-new-technologies","slug":"6-0-new-technologies","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation."},"orderNumber":7,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6202f02dec18e5e584320","name":"7.0 Policy and Funding Advances","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/7-0-policy-and-funding-advances","slug":"7-0-policy-and-funding-advances","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nPolicy and funding can determine whether kelp conservation remains a collection of local projects or grows into coordinated, long-term action. Around the world, governments and partners are beginning to set clearer targets, strengthen regulation, build dedicated coordination structures, and invest in restoration and monitoring. Here, we highlight examples of how policy, funding, and governance are creating the conditions needed to support kelp conservation at meaningful scales.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nPolicy and funding can determine whether kelp conservation remains a collection of local projects or grows into coordinated, long-term action. Around the world, governments and partners are beginning to set clearer targets, strengthen regulation, build dedicated coordination structures, and invest in restoration and monitoring. Here, we highlight examples of how policy, funding, and governance are creating the conditions needed to support kelp conservation at meaningful scales."},"orderNumber":8,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad629a902dec18e5e5843ac","name":"8.0 Communities and Communications","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/8-0-communities-and-communications","slug":"8-0-communities-and-communications","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nProtecting and restoring kelp forests is as much about connecting people to these systems as it is about science and policy. People have expressed their connection to and the importance of kelp forests in many forms, from paint to poetry to podcasts. Here, we highlight some of our favourite examples of artistic expression and communication about kelp forests.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nProtecting and restoring kelp forests is as much about connecting people to these systems as it is about science and policy. People have expressed their connection to and the importance of kelp forests in many forms, from paint to poetry to podcasts. Here, we highlight some of our favourite examples of artistic expression and communication about kelp forests."},"orderNumber":9,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad62b9402dec18e5e5843d9","name":"9.0 Methods","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/9-0-methods","slug":"9-0-methods","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"9.1 Expert opinion survey\nThis assessment draws on a structured global survey of kelp forest experts, practitioners, and managers. Participants provided information only for regions where they had substantial knowledge or experience.\nThe survey assessed four aspects of kelp forest conservation: threats and stressors, current conservation action, capacity to respond, and ecosystem benefits. Sixteen indicators were scored using consistent criteria, allowing broad comparisons among regions.\nResponses were combined to produce regional summaries and to identify places where conservation action and capacity may not be keeping pace with the pressures facing kelp forests.\nThe results represent expert-informed assessments rather than direct measurements of ecological condition or management effectiveness. The number of respondents and the availability of evidence varied among regions, so findings from areas with limited responses should be interpreted cautiously and alongside other available information.\n9.2 Kelp protection analysis\nWe estimated how much of the global kelp biome overlaps with marine protected areas and how strong that protection is likely to be.\nThe kelp biome was represented using a global model of potential kelp distribution1, restricted to waters shallower than 60 metres. This captures the broad environmental range in which kelp forests may occur, but it is not a direct map of observed kelp. It may overestimate habitat because it does not account for the availability of rocky reef, while also underestimating kelp distribution in places that were inaccurately modelled.\nWe overlaid this biome layer with two complementary protected-area datasets. The World Database on Protected Areas was used to estimate the overall area of kelp habitat located within designated protected areas. ProtectedSeas’ Level of Fishing Protection dataset was used to assess the strength of fishing restrictions within those areas, with a focus on moderately and highly protected sites.\nWhere protected areas overlapped, each location was assigned to the highest applicable protection category to avoid double-counting. These results indicate the spatial extent and likely regulatory strength of protection, but they do not directly measure enforcement, management effectiveness, or ecological outcomes.\n\nFigure 9.1 Overview of the kelp protection analysis. Habitat and protected-area layers are overlaid to estimate spatial overlap. See Section 9.2 for the habitat layer and protection datasets used in this report."}},"intro":{"text":""},"orderNumber":10,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad62c4c02dec18e5e5843e8","name":"10.0 Closing","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/10-0-closing","slug":"10-0-closing","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"The state of the world’s kelp forests remains mixed. Kelp forests continue to be lost, oceans are warming, and overabundant grazers remain a major challenge.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"The state of the world’s kelp forests remains mixed. Kelp forests continue to be lost, oceans are warming, and overabundant grazers remain a major challenge."},"orderNumber":11,"banner":null}]},"featurePages":[],"marqueePages":[],"children":[],"banners":[],"slices":[]}}},"pageContext":{"lang":{"id":"en","path":"","iso":"en","name":"English","label":"English"},"availableEntities":["Event","FeedEntry","Location","Organisation","Page","Post","Region","RestorationProject","Video","Publications","Entity","Citation","Guidebook","ProjectCaseStudy"],"detailEntities":["Event","FeedEntry","Location","Organisation","Page","Post","Region","RestorationProject","Video"],"site":{"id":"65d5942d1368b052bf6ff61d","slug":"kelp-forest-alliance","name":"Kelp Forest Alliance","url":"https://kelpforestalliance.com","title":"Kelp Forest Alliance","twitter":"https://twitter.com/KelpAlliance","threads":null,"facebook":null,"linkedin":null,"instagram":"https://www.instagram.com/kelpforestalliance/","flickr":null,"tiktok":null,"youtube":null,"ownerName":"Kelp Forest Alliance","recaptchaKey":"6Lfl7VwfAAAAAOJxnHRx2kG4qi8tvJrPChLwnBQe","googleSiteVerification":"K1GoJFry3_dyRlU2TBFIQE0nvAqMISP5yB_AKdaXZ2Q","platformName":"The Kelp Forest Alliance Network","platformUrl":"https://community.kelpforestalliance.com","supportEmail":null,"contactEmail":null,"mainMenu":null,"linearMenu":null,"entityViews":[],"entityAppViews":[],"entityOnboardingViews":[],"gptLanguages":[],"gptQuestionTemplate":null,"advertisements":[],"logoVerticalOffset":null,"logoHorizontalOffset":null,"logoVerticalOffsetMobile":null,"logoHorizontalOffsetMobile":null,"logoVerticalOffsetTablet":null,"logoHorizontalOffsetTablet":null,"logoVerticalOffsetDesktop":null,"logoHorizontalOffsetDesktop":null,"logoHeightMobile":null,"logoHeightTablet":null,"logoHeightDesktop":null,"headerHeightMobile":null,"headerHeightTablet":null,"headerHeightDesktop":null,"logo":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1685318951/kelp-forest-alliance/site/kelp-forest-alliance_logo__kelp-forest-alliance_wfwae0.png.png","type":"image/png","width":813,"height":394},"logoInverted":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1685319067/kelp-forest-alliance/site/kelp-forest-alliance_logoInverted__kelp-forest-alliance-inverted_fvrp2g.png.png","type":"image/png","width":446,"height":216},"footerMenu":null,"footerSecondaryMenu":null,"footerContent":{"text":""},"creator":null,"poweredBy":{"id":"65d594011368b052bf6ff083","name":"Shapeable","slug":"shapeable","url":"https://shapeable.ai","logo":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1685320264/kelp-forest-alliance/organisation/shapeable_logo__shapeable_g0irbu.png.png","type":"image/png","width":392,"height":118},"logoInverted":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1685320252/kelp-forest-alliance/organisation/shapeable_logoInverted__shapeable-inverted_jklhmv.png.png","type":"image/png","width":392,"height":118},"logoSubtle":null},"poweredByLabel":null,"poweredByContent":{"text":""},"explorerPage":null,"termsPage":null,"homePage":null,"knowledgeHubPage":null,"privacyPolicyPage":null,"summary":{"text":"Kelp forests cover a third of the world’s coastlines and support hundreds of millions of people, but they are disappearing. 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The Kelp Forest Alliance is a collaborative home that brings together people and organisations to enhance, protect, and restore these incredible ecosystems.\n"},"image":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1671168583/kelp-forest-alliance/site/kelp-forest-alliance_thumbnail__kelp-forest-alliance-thumb_kxdqwl.jpg.jpg","type":"image/jpeg","thumbnails":{"full":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1671168583/kelp-forest-alliance/site/kelp-forest-alliance_thumbnail__kelp-forest-alliance-thumb_kxdqwl.jpg.jpg"}}}},"termsAndConditions":{"text":""},"privacyPolicy":{"text":""},"welcomeUrl":"https://kelpforestalliance.com/app/welcome","welcomeTitle":null,"invitationAction":"join the Kelp Forest Alliance community","setupCompletionMessage":null,"languages":[],"brandColors":[],"showLogin":null,"showShareMenu":null,"showFollowMenu":true,"showPlatformLogin":true,"showContactUs":true,"loginLabel":null,"platformLoginLabel":"Community 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