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    "result": {"data":{"platform":{"page":{"id":"6ad6035902dec18e5e58419b","slug":"2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","name":"2.0 Benefits of Kelp Forests","__typename":"Platform_Page","_schema":{"label":"Page","pluralLabel":"Pages"},"title":null,"pretitle":null,"subtitle":null,"titleRich":{"text":""},"subtitleRich":{"text":""},"content":{"text":"## 2.2 Services provided by kelp forests\n**Kelp forests, like all ecosystems, provide multiple benefits to people.** \n\nThey support biodiversity and fisheries, contribute to cultural connections and recreation, provide opportunities for wild harvest, and may help capture and store carbon, remove nutrient pollution, or reduce coastal exposure in some locations. But these benefits are not equally strong or equally widespread.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad5ff7502dec18e5e584186\" />\n\n*Figure 2.1. Expert assessments of the benefits provided by kelp forests. Summary scores and regional patterns illustrate variation in the benefits recognised by respondents. See Section 9.1 for the survey methods.*\n\nAcross our global expert assessment (see Section 9.1), biodiversity support and contributions to fisheries were the most consistently recognised benefits of kelp forests. Other benefits were important in specific regions, but varied more depending on local ecology, culture, livelihoods, and the available evidence. Kelp forests should therefore not be valued through a single benefit alone. Their importance comes from the combination of benefits they provide.\n\n## 2.3 Economic value of kelp forests\n\nThe economic value of kelp forests is impressive. The three major market services provided by kelp forests (coastal fisheries, nutrient cycling, and carbon removal) have been estimated to generate more than US\\$500 billion in potential value each year.[1](/citation/sowk2-2-1/) Estimates also vary according to the methods, assumptions, and definitions applied. They should therefore be interpreted as indicators of potential value rather than as realised revenue. Economic valuation helps communicate the scale of kelp forests’ contribution to people and economies, but it captures only part of their importance. Cultural relationships, biodiversity, identity, recreation, and many other non-market benefits are difficult to express in monetary terms.\n\n## 2.4 Wild harvest\n\nKelp forests have supplied food, fertiliser, medicines, and materials to coastal communities for thousands of years. Here, wild harvest refers to kelp collected directly from naturally occurring populations, rather than kelp cultivated through aquaculture.\n\nAcross 14 countries, an estimated 600,000 tonnes of wild kelp are harvested each year. Over the most recent five-year reporting period, Chile recorded more than one million tonnes of wild harvest. Norway, Japan, France, and Peru reported approximately 762,001 tonnes, 204,359 tonnes, 273,176 tonnes, and 198,896 tonnes, respectively (Figure 2.2).[2](/citation/sowk2-2-2/)\n\nWild harvest can support livelihoods, local economies, and culturally important practices. Its ecological effects, however, depend on the species harvested, the methods used, the intensity and frequency of removal, and the effectiveness of local management. Well-designed harvest regulations can allow continued use while maintaining the ecological structure and productivity of kelp forests.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad6004002dec18e5e584189\" />\n\nFigure 2.2. Wild kelp harvest in selected countries. Bars show cumulative reported harvest, in tonnes, over the five-year period described in the text.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad600c302dec18e5e58418c\" />\n\n## 2.5 Fisheries\n\nKelp forests are also critical habitats for many commercially and culturally important species, including abalone, lobsters, and fish. It has been estimated that each hectare of kelp supports an average of 904 kg of harvested fish and seafood annually.[1](/citation/sowk2-2-1/)\n\n  Lobster and abalone fisheries are particularly important in kelp forest ecosystems. In Australia, annual catches of approximately 10,770 tonnes of rock lobster and 1,965 tonnes of abalone generate an estimated US\\$396 million.[3](/citation/sowk2-2-3/) Kelp-associated fisheries are also important elsewhere. At least nine fisheries have been linked to kelp forests in the United States.[4](/citation/sowk2-2-4/) In the United Kingdom, seven fisheries are associated with kelp habitat,[5](/citation/sowk2-2-5/) including a European lobster fishery valued at approximately US\\$65 million annually.[6](/citation/sowk2-2-6/) Approximately 2,945 tonnes of abalone[7](/citation/sowk2-2-7/) and rock lobster[8](/citation/sowk2-2-8/) are captured and cultured annually in South Africa, with an estimated economic value of US\\$57 million per year (2024). In total, 38 species with economic value linked to kelp forests are found in South Africa.[5](/citation/sowk2-2-5/)\n\nIn Spain, 32 harvested species occur in kelp forest areas and generate approximately US\\$18 million in annual revenue,[9](/citation/sowk2-2-9/) while in neighbouring Portugal, 44 harvested species had an economic value of \\$1.83 million.[10](/citation/sowk2-2-10/)\n\nThese figures demonstrate the importance of kelp habitat to coastal economies, but they do not represent the total value of kelp-associated fisheries. Estimates differ in geographic coverage, methodology, and the strength of the ecological link established between individual fisheries and kelp forests.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad6020d02dec18e5e58418f\" />\nFigure 2.3. Examples of kelp-associated fisheries and their economic value. The comparison summarises selected species, fisheries, harvest quantities, and annual values reported in the accompanying text.\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad6026902dec18e5e584192\" />\n\n> Kelp-associated fisheries: an estimated 904 kg of fish and seafood harvested per hectare of kelp forest each year.[1](/citation/sowk2-2-1/)\n\n## 2.6 Kelp and carbon capture\n\nKelps have high carbon-fixation rates and an extensive distribution, and are increasingly being viewed as a tool for carbon dioxide removal to help mitigate climate change. Kelp forests were recently shown to transfer significant quantities of carbon to the deep ocean, where it can remain stored for more than 100 years. These estimates suggest that a square metre of kelp forest may sequester between 5 and 30 grams of carbon in the deep ocean every year.[11](/citation/sowk2-2-11/) Globally, kelp forests are thought to sequester 8.6 million tonnes (range: 2.6–14.7 million tonnes) of carbon every year (32 million tonnes of CO2) in the deep ocean, with forests in Australia, the USA, New Zealand, Chile, and Peru having the greatest sequestration potential. These estimates show that it is feasible, although technically complex, to link management actions such as protection and restoration to specific amounts of CO2 sequestered from the atmosphere. If done correctly, these methods can provide the basis for carbon credits in kelp forest ecosystems. It is important to stress that preventing the loss of kelp forests is the most cost-effective strategy to avoid losing their carbon removal capacity, as well as safeguarding the numerous other benefits they provide.[12](/citation/sowk2-2-12/)\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad602c502dec18e5e584195\" />\n\n<ImageAsset id=\"6ad6033b02dec18e5e584198\" />\nFigure 2.4 Map of carbon sequestration potential."},"options":{"text":""},"openGraph":{"title":null,"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n\nKelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over 950 million people around the world.\n\nThe potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is over US$500 billion per year.\n\nKelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.\n\nNearly 600,000 tonnes of wild kelp are harvested each year.\n\nKelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately 32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.\n\n\n"},"image":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792410540/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/kelp-chapter-2_image__14545258891_835bf358cc_o_5472x3648_gimftm.webp","url2x":null,"thumbnails":{"card":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_480/v1792410540/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/kelp-chapter-2_image__14545258891_835bf358cc_o_5472x3648_gimftm.webp","url2x":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_960/v1792410540/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/kelp-chapter-2_image__14545258891_835bf358cc_o_5472x3648_gimftm.webp"},"bubble":{"url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_64/v1792410540/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/kelp-chapter-2_image__14545258891_835bf358cc_o_5472x3648_gimftm.webp","url2x":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/c_limit,w_128/v1792410540/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/kelp-chapter-2_image__14545258891_835bf358cc_o_5472x3648_gimftm.webp"}}}},"intro":{"text":"**Key takeaways**\n\n1. Kelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over **950 million people around the world.**\n\n2. The potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is **over US$500 billion per year.**\n\n3. Kelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) **generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.**\n\n4. Nearly **600,000 tonnes of wild kelp** are harvested each year.\n\n5. Kelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately **32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.**"},"outro":{"text":""},"type":{"id":"671ef8301291fdccdbaa3afd","name":"Report","slug":"report"},"themeMode":null,"bannerThemeMode":null,"orderNumber":3,"layout":{"id":"65d5940a1368b052bf6ff14c","name":"Content","slug":"content","component":"PageLayoutContent"},"authors":[{"id":"65d594121368b052bf6ff16c","name":"Albert Pessarrodona","slug":"albert-pessarrodona","path":"/people/albert-pessarrodona","organisation":{"id":"65d594011368b052bf6ff0ca","name":"University of Western Australia Oceans Institute and School of Biological 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kelp forests.","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/figure-2-1-expert-assessments-of-the-benefits-provided-by-kelp-forests_image__2._Fig_2.1_uhxxlb","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1792409429/kelp-forest-alliance/image-asset/figure-2-1-expert-assessments-of-the-benefits-provided-by-kelp-forests_image__2._Fig_2.1_uhxxlb.png","url2x":null}}]},"parent":{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6acdd00bbdeded6c37dcd41e","name":"State of the World's Kelp 26","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26","slug":"state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26","title":"State of the World's Kelp Forests Report 2026","subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"content":{"text":""},"children":[{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad4a34121102692df900752","name":"Forewords","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/forewords","slug":"forewords","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"\n\nJulianna Sullivan – Port Gamble S’Kallam Tribe\nyaʔyáʔnəŋ̕ u cxʷ?\n(Are you listening?)\nSome of my earliest memories are sitting cross-legged on the floor of my preschool classroom, quietly watching as the grandmothers sang us our songs. In their hands was a rattle made from bull kelp, its rhythm carrying our language, our teachings, and the voices of those who came before us. Though we were taught to listen with respect and intention, there was something about the sound of the kelp rattle and the grandmothers' voices that drew us in. Even as young children, we knew those moments held something sacred.\nYears later, kelp would carry me far beyond my own shoreline.\nKelp introduced me to Indigenous relatives from coastlines I had never walked, whose languages I do not speak, yet whose hearts recognised something familiar in my own. Although our languages, traditions, and coastlines are beautifully distinct, something remarkable happened when we gathered. In every story, every laugh, every song, and every teaching, we found reflections of our own relationships with kelp. What once felt like isolated experiences became part of a much larger story—one that has been unfolding along coastlines around the world since time immemorial.\nEach gathering felt like drawing water from a deep well. Every person arrived carrying teachings from their own homeland, entrusted to them by their ancestors and communities. As those teachings were shared with humility and received with gratitude, the well grew deeper and purer. No one left with less. Somehow, we all left carrying more.\nMi'kmaq Elder Albert Marshall's teaching of Etuaptmumk, or Two-Eyed Seeing, became a guiding light for our journey. One eye recognises the strengths of our Indigenous ways of knowing, the other the strengths of Western science. It is only with both eyes open that we can better understand our kelp forests and find ways to better care for the world around us.\nAs kelp forests face unprecedented challenges, this growing circle of Indigenous kelp stewards reminds us that we are not alone. Across oceans, we are reconnecting to share knowledge, strengthen one another, and remember what the tides have always known—that the ocean connects us all.\nMy hope is that this spirit ripples outward, inspiring us to approach this work with curiosity, humility, and relationships rooted in respect, reciprocity, and care for the living world.\nw̕ yaʔyáʔnəŋ cn.\n(Yes, I am listening.)\n\n\nCraig Foster – Sea Change\nI’m at the tip of Africa in the Great African Seaforest. I watch in awe. A female pyjama shark is attempting to attach one of her eggs to a kelp holdfast by rotating her body around and around to weave the egg case thread into the kelp. Then something happened that I could never have imagined. A male pyjama shark appeared and repeatedly placed his body as protection between the female and any threat. As far as I know, this kind of protective behaviour is unknown in sharks.\nOnce the egg case was safely attached, both sharks moved away. Now the tiny shark would feed on the yolk inside the egg for at least six months before hatching, vulnerable to predation from starfish and whelks. I stared at the newly laid egg and felt a deep vulnerability in myself, because something told me that the survival of this endangered species was woven into my own survival. We feel separate, but that’s not actually the case, as biodiversity health and human health are fundamentally linked.\nOur future survival depends on our relationship with Mother Nature. Nurturing that relationship is the most important single thing we can do to support life and the coming lives of the next generation.\nKelp forests are places on Earth Mother’s body that have great wealth and density of species. They represent reservoirs of hope. They are amongst the most fragile and critical places to look after. Each act of caring and protection is an act of self-care. All our lives, animal and human, rest in her arms.\n"}},"intro":{"text":""},"orderNumber":1,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad4bfee21102692df90075d","name":"1.0 Introduction – Welcome to Kelp Forests","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/1-0-introduction-welcome-to-kelp-forests","slug":"1-0-introduction-welcome-to-kelp-forests","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n1. Kelp forests cover one-third of our world’s coastlines.\n2. Areas within 50 km of a kelp forest are home to 950 million people and account for 18% of global GDP.\n3. 40–60% of these systems have declined in the last 50 years.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Key takeaways**\n\n1\\. Kelp forests cover one-third of our world’s coastlines.\n\n2\\. Areas within 50 km of a kelp forest are home to 950 million people and account for 18% of global GDP.\n\n3\\. 40–60% of these systems have declined in the last 50 years."},"orderNumber":2,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6035902dec18e5e58419b","name":"2.0 Benefits of Kelp Forests","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","slug":"2-0-benefits-of-kelp-forests","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n\nKelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over 950 million people around the world.\n\nThe potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is over US$500 billion per year.\n\nKelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.\n\nNearly 600,000 tonnes of wild kelp are harvested each year.\n\nKelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately 32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.\n\n\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Key takeaways**\n\n1. Kelp forests provide a wide range of economic and cultural services to over **950 million people around the world.**\n\n2. The potential economic value of ecosystem services in kelp forests is **over US$500 billion per year.**\n\n3. Kelp forest fisheries (lobster, abalone, fish) **generate tens of millions to billions for national economies each year.**\n\n4. Nearly **600,000 tonnes of wild kelp** are harvested each year.\n\n5. Kelp forests are estimated to sequester approximately **32 million tonnes of CO2 annually.**"},"orderNumber":3,"banner":{"name":"Kelp chapter 2","slug":"kelp-chapter-2","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad607a102dec18e5e584222","name":"3.0 Conservation Actions and Priorities","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/3-0-conservation-actions-and-priorities","slug":"3-0-conservation-actions-and-priorities","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key takeaways\n1) As the threats facing kelp forests are diverse, so are the methods for conserving, protecting, and managing these ecosystems. There is no universal approach, and conservation must be adapted to the local context.2) Monitoring is the most common type of kelp conservation used across regions.3) Communities are increasingly involved in kelp conservation projects.4) Indigenous stewardship, based on deep connections to local kelp forests, provides a complementary model for kelp conservation.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"## Key takeaways\n\n1) As the **threats facing kelp forests are diverse**, so are the methods for conserving, protecting, and managing these ecosystems. There is no universal approach, and conservation must be adapted to the local context.   \n2) Monitoring is the most common type of kelp conservation used across regions.  \n3) Communities are increasingly involved in kelp conservation projects.  \n4) Indigenous stewardship, based on deep connections to local kelp forests, provides a complementary model for kelp conservation."},"orderNumber":4,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6116f02dec18e5e584292","name":"4.0 Protected Areas","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/4-0-protected-areas","slug":"4-0-protected-areas","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Key Takeaways\n\nAround 23% of the global kelp biome overlaps with a protected area. This is an increase from 16% in 2024.  \nThirteen regions have more than 30% of their kelp biome within protected areas, while 23 regions remain below this level.  \nProtected-area coverage is highest in regions including the Sub-Antarctic Islands, Atlantic France, Japan, South Australia, Atlantic Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean, California, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Argentina, Western Australia, Washington, and Chile.  \nStrong protection of kelp forest ecosystems is very rare. Only 1.2% of the global kelp biome can currently be confidently identified as highly protected, with an additional 1.86% identified as moderately protected.  \nSeveral regions remain particularly under-protected, including Aotearoa New Zealand, the Russian and Canadian Arctic, eastern Canada, China, and Tasmania.\n\n"}},"intro":{"text":"Key Takeaways\n\n1. Around **23% of the global kelp biome** overlaps with a **protected area. This is an increase from 16%** in 2024.  \n2. **Thirteen regions have more than 30% of their kelp biome within protected areas,** while 23 regions remain below this level.  \n3. Protected-area coverage is highest in regions including the Sub-Antarctic Islands, Atlantic France, Japan, South Australia, Atlantic Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean, California, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Argentina, Western Australia, Washington, and Chile.  \n4. Strong protection of kelp forest ecosystems is very rare. **Only 1.2% of the global kelp biome** can currently be confidently **identified as highly protected**, with an additional 1.86% identified as moderately protected.  \n5. Several regions remain particularly under-protected, including Aotearoa New Zealand, the Russian and Canadian Arctic, eastern Canada, China, and Tasmania."},"orderNumber":5,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad618a702dec18e5e5842b7","name":"5.0 Restoration","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/5-0-restoration","slug":"5-0-restoration","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nRestoration is expanding around the world, but progress remains uneven. A small number of larger programmes are showing that kelp forests can be restored at meaningful scales, while many projects remain small, experimental, or difficult to sustain and expand. Here, we highlight the main approaches being used and examine examples where restoration has succeeded at scale, focusing on the methods, partnerships, funding, and long-term management that have helped make recovery possible.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nRestoration is expanding around the world, but progress remains uneven. A small number of larger programmes are showing that kelp forests can be restored at meaningful scales, while many projects remain small, experimental, or difficult to sustain and expand. Here, we highlight the main approaches being used and examine examples where restoration has succeeded at scale, focusing on the methods, partnerships, funding, and long-term management that have helped make recovery possible."},"orderNumber":6,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad61c2202dec18e5e5842d1","name":"6.0 New Technologies","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/6-0-new-technologies","slug":"6-0-new-technologies","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nTechnology has an important role to play in making kelp forest conservation more effective and more efficient. While the field has received little dedicated research and development compared to terrestrial and coral systems, we are seeing the emergence of innovative approaches and creative applications of technologies developed for other settings to improve kelp forest health. Here we highlight some emerging and established technologies that will help drive the future of kelp forest conservation."},"orderNumber":7,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad6202f02dec18e5e584320","name":"7.0 Policy and Funding Advances","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/7-0-policy-and-funding-advances","slug":"7-0-policy-and-funding-advances","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nPolicy and funding can determine whether kelp conservation remains a collection of local projects or grows into coordinated, long-term action. Around the world, governments and partners are beginning to set clearer targets, strengthen regulation, build dedicated coordination structures, and invest in restoration and monitoring. Here, we highlight examples of how policy, funding, and governance are creating the conditions needed to support kelp conservation at meaningful scales.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nPolicy and funding can determine whether kelp conservation remains a collection of local projects or grows into coordinated, long-term action. Around the world, governments and partners are beginning to set clearer targets, strengthen regulation, build dedicated coordination structures, and invest in restoration and monitoring. Here, we highlight examples of how policy, funding, and governance are creating the conditions needed to support kelp conservation at meaningful scales."},"orderNumber":8,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad629a902dec18e5e5843ac","name":"8.0 Communities and Communications","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/8-0-communities-and-communications","slug":"8-0-communities-and-communications","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"Chapter at a glance\nProtecting and restoring kelp forests is as much about connecting people to these systems as it is about science and policy. People have expressed their connection to and the importance of kelp forests in many forms, from paint to poetry to podcasts. Here, we highlight some of our favourite examples of artistic expression and communication about kelp forests.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"**Chapter at a glance**\n\nProtecting and restoring kelp forests is as much about connecting people to these systems as it is about science and policy. People have expressed their connection to and the importance of kelp forests in many forms, from paint to poetry to podcasts. Here, we highlight some of our favourite examples of artistic expression and communication about kelp forests."},"orderNumber":9,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad62b9402dec18e5e5843d9","name":"9.0 Methods","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/9-0-methods","slug":"9-0-methods","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"9.1 Expert opinion survey\nThis assessment draws on a structured global survey of kelp forest experts, practitioners, and managers. Participants provided information only for regions where they had substantial knowledge or experience.\nThe survey assessed four aspects of kelp forest conservation: threats and stressors, current conservation action, capacity to respond, and ecosystem benefits. Sixteen indicators were scored using consistent criteria, allowing broad comparisons among regions.\nResponses were combined to produce regional summaries and to identify places where conservation action and capacity may not be keeping pace with the pressures facing kelp forests.\nThe results represent expert-informed assessments rather than direct measurements of ecological condition or management effectiveness. The number of respondents and the availability of evidence varied among regions, so findings from areas with limited responses should be interpreted cautiously and alongside other available information.\n9.2 Kelp protection analysis\nWe estimated how much of the global kelp biome overlaps with marine protected areas and how strong that protection is likely to be.\nThe kelp biome was represented using a global model of potential kelp distribution1, restricted to waters shallower than 60 metres. This captures the broad environmental range in which kelp forests may occur, but it is not a direct map of observed kelp. It may overestimate habitat because it does not account for the availability of rocky reef, while also underestimating kelp distribution in places that were inaccurately modelled.\nWe overlaid this biome layer with two complementary protected-area datasets. The World Database on Protected Areas was used to estimate the overall area of kelp habitat located within designated protected areas. ProtectedSeas’ Level of Fishing Protection dataset was used to assess the strength of fishing restrictions within those areas, with a focus on moderately and highly protected sites.\nWhere protected areas overlapped, each location was assigned to the highest applicable protection category to avoid double-counting. These results indicate the spatial extent and likely regulatory strength of protection, but they do not directly measure enforcement, management effectiveness, or ecological outcomes.\n\nFigure 9.1 Overview of the kelp protection analysis. Habitat and protected-area layers are overlaid to estimate spatial overlap. See Section 9.2 for the habitat layer and protection datasets used in this report."}},"intro":{"text":""},"orderNumber":10,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"6ad62c4c02dec18e5e5843e8","name":"10.0 Closing","path":"/state-of-the-worlds-kelp-26/10-0-closing","slug":"10-0-closing","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":null,"openGraph":{"description":{"plain":"The state of the world’s kelp forests remains mixed. Kelp forests continue to be lost, oceans are warming, and overabundant grazers remain a major challenge.\n"}},"intro":{"text":"The state of the world’s kelp forests remains mixed. 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