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The state is responding with protection goals, a forthcoming Kelp Restoration and Management Plan and toolkit, and multi-site restoration experiments statewide. Approaches include urchin suppression, seeded lines and materials, and spore-based methods, guided by canopy mapping and future-condition models. Tribal-led stewardship is growing. Key needs are to scale projects with resilience funding, simplify permitting, and maintain long-term monitoring."},"image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/banner/california-banner_thumbnail__California_Thumb_nl0kqb","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1768777217/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/california-banner_thumbnail__California_Thumb_nl0kqb.webp","url2x":null}}}],"country":{"latitude":37.09024,"longitude":-95.712891,"_schema":{"pluralLabel":"Countries","label":"Country"},"__typename":"Platform_Economy","id":"65d593df1368b052bf6febfb","slug":"united-states-of-america","name":"United States of America","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_economy/united-states-of-america","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/banner/economy-united-states-of-america_thumbnail__US_St_Louis_Arch_ynkdxg","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1668994358/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/economy-united-states-of-america_thumbnail__US_St_Louis_Arch_ynkdxg.jpg","url2x":null}}},"description":{"id":"6a1e79fa3d26cc88fe74a053_description","text":"A site located near, but outside the influence of, the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station discharge plume, intended to compensate for loss of giant kelp forest caused by station operations.\n"},"species":[{"__typename":"Platform_Species","id":"65d594551368b052bf6ffb30","name":"Macrocystis pyrifera","slug":"macrocystis-pyrifera","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_species/macrocystis-pyrifera","title":"Macrocystis pyrifera","description":null,"image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1668995200/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi.jpg","url2x":null}}}],"objective":{"id":"6a1e79fa3d26cc88fe74a053_objective","text":"To gain insight into the processes most likely to limit its recovery from catastrophic disturbances, which is highly relevant to kelp forest restoration. Specifically, we sought to determine: (1) how spatial patterns of giant kelp colonization varied in relation to distance from the nearest source population, (2) the extent to which density dependence during early stages of colonization influenced patterns of adult kelp abundance and biomass, and (3) the amount of time for the standing biomass of giant kelp at the artificial reef to approach levels comparable to that at nearby natural reefs. In addition, we evaluated the efficacy of outplanting laboratory-reared kelp embryos to the artificial reef as a useful and necessary tool for accelerating the establishment of giant kelp. Our results improve understanding of the ecological processes underlying kelp forest dynamics, particularly with respect to recovery from disturbance, which is needed for designing cost-effective restoration programs aimed at re-establishing kelps on natural reefs where they have declined.\n"},"causeOfDecline":{"id":"6a1e79fa3d26cc88fe74a053_causeOfDecline","text":"Wheeler North Reef (hereafter “artificial reef”) is a large artificial reef complex in southern California that was built to mitigate the loss of giant kelp forest habitat caused by the turbid discharge plume of the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS). It is located ~1 km offshore of San Clemente, California, USA (33.40210, −117.62420) at 13–16 m depth in an expansive area of sandy habitat that is near, but outside, the influence of the SONGS discharge plume."},"reasons":[],"place":{"__typename":"Platform_Place","id":"6a1e6f783d26cc88fe749fd0","name":"San Clemente State Beach","latitude":33.4021,"longitude":117.6242},"organisation":{"__typename":"Platform_Organisation","id":"65d594011368b052bf6ff0b3","name":"University of California Institute of Marine Science","slug":"university-of-california-institute-of-marine-science","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_organisation/university-of-california-institute-of-marine-science","title":"University of California Institute of Marine Science","description":null,"image":null}},"organisations":[{"__typename":"Platform_Organisation","id":"65d594011368b052bf6ff0b3","name":"University of California Institute of Marine Science","slug":"university-of-california-institute-of-marine-science","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_organisation/university-of-california-institute-of-marine-science","description":null,"title":"University of California Institute of Marine Science","image":null},"country":null}],"motivations":[{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5","name":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","slug":"increasing-ecosystem-services","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/increasing-ecosystem-services","title":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5_description","text":"Kelp forests provide a myriad of ecosystem services and regrowing them helps return fisheries, nutrient cycling, carbon capture, and recreational experiences to waters where they have been lost."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4","name":"Improving Methodologies","slug":"improving-methodologies","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/improving-methodologies","title":"Improving Methodologies","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4_description","text":"Restoration is a technical process and we are still determining the best approaches to restore kelp forests, your restoration project may be motivated by the desire to refine your methods and learn more about how to effectively conduct restoration."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2","name":"Answering Scientific Questions","slug":"answering-scientific-questions","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/answering-scientific-questions","title":"Answering Scientific Questions","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2_description","text":"Restoring an ecosystem system can also create the opportunity to conduct scientific research and answer questions about kelp forests grow, respond to their environment, and interact with the many other seaweeds and animals that share the ocean with them."},"image":null}}],"contact":{"__typename":"Platform_Person","id":"65d594121368b052bf6ff1cf","name":"Dan Reed","slug":"dan-reed","organisation":{"id":"65d594011368b052bf6ff0b5","name":"University of California Santa Barbara"},"openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_person/dan-reed","title":"Dan Reed","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/person/dan-reed_photo__Dan_b9eiln","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1732588596/kelp-forest-alliance/person/dan-reed_photo__Dan_b9eiln.jpg","url2x":null}}},"citation":{"__typename":"Platform_Citation","id":"6a1e6fde3d26cc88fe749fd6","slug":"the-ecology-of-giant-kelp-colonization-and-its-implications-for-kelp-forest-restoration","url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39072751/","name":"The ecology of giant kelp colonization and its implications for kelp forest restoration","authors":[],"authorShowsEtAl":null,"edition":null,"publication":"Reed, D. 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The reef was monitored for 3–4 years following construction of each phase.\n\nIn part 1 of Phase 1, approximately 7 hectares of a low-relief (<1 m tall) artificial reef at 13–16 m depth were constructed, with half built from quarried rock boulders and half from concrete rubble. The reef was divided into seven blocks of six reef modules (40 m × 40 m), with equal representation of each material within each block.\n\n"},"lessonsLearned":{"id":"6a1e73ef3d26cc88fe749fe1_lessonsLearned","text":"Following physical habitat creation, natural kelp colonization and succession can be rapid and effective when stressors are alleviated, often outperforming seeding and transplanting, which are costly and uncertain.\n"},"projectImpacts":{"id":"6a1e73ef3d26cc88fe749fe1_projectImpacts","text":"The rate of kelp biomass increase on the newly constructed artificial reef was relatively rapid and the average biomass of giant kelp for all phases of the artificial reef exceeded that at San Mateo and Barn within 2 or 3 years after reef construction. The low biomass of giant kelp at San Mateo from 2021 to 2023 is particularly noteworthy since the size of a spore source is directly related to the standing biomass of giant kelp (Castorani et al., 2017). The smaller source population at San Mateo during this period may have contributed to the lower recruitment observed on the Phase 3 modules compared to that observed following the construction of Phases 1 (Figure 3a) and 2 (Figure 4a) when the standing biomass of giant kelp at San Mateo was much larger.\n"},"disturbanceDescription":{"id":"6a1e73ef3d26cc88fe749fe1_disturbanceDescription","text":""},"recordedBy":[{"__typename":"Platform_Person","id":"69ccb3a9afcecd4cb4810e6a","slug":"emily-clout","name":"Emily Clout","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_person/emily-clout","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/person/emily-clout_photo__Linkedin_photo_ue6akr","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1779343632/kelp-forest-alliance/person/emily-clout_photo__Linkedin_photo_ue6akr.png","url2x":null}}}],"species":[{"__typename":"Platform_Species","id":"65d594551368b052bf6ffb30","slug":"macrocystis-pyrifera","name":"Macrocystis pyrifera","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_species/macrocystis-pyrifera","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1668995200/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi.jpg","url2x":null}}}],"transplantAdherenceMethod":null,"transplantLifeStage":null,"transplantSource":null,"causeOfDecline":{"id":"6a1e73ef3d26cc88fe749fe1_causeOfDecline","text":""},"reasons":[],"objective":{"id":"6a1e73ef3d26cc88fe749fe1_objective","text":""},"motivations":[{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5","name":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","slug":"increasing-ecosystem-services","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/increasing-ecosystem-services","title":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5_description","text":"Kelp forests provide a myriad of ecosystem services and regrowing them helps return fisheries, nutrient cycling, carbon capture, and recreational experiences to waters where they have been lost."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4","name":"Improving Methodologies","slug":"improving-methodologies","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/improving-methodologies","title":"Improving Methodologies","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4_description","text":"Restoration is a technical process and we are still determining the best approaches to restore kelp forests, your restoration project may be motivated by the desire to refine your methods and learn more about how to effectively conduct restoration."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2","name":"Answering Scientific Questions","slug":"answering-scientific-questions","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/answering-scientific-questions","title":"Answering Scientific Questions","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2_description","text":"Restoring an ecosystem system can also create the opportunity to conduct scientific research and answer questions about kelp forests grow, respond to their environment, and interact with the many other seaweeds and animals that share the ocean with them."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e6","name":"Remediating Environmental Damage","slug":"remediating-environmental-damage","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/remediating-environmental-damage","title":"Remediating Environmental Damage","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e6_description","text":"Some projects may be motivated to offset damages incurred by pollution or construction events. These offsets may be motivated by altruism for the environment or legal requirements."},"image":null}}],"methodologies":[{"__typename":"Platform_Methodology","id":"65d594491368b052bf6ff89d","name":"Add Substrate - Artificial Reef","slug":"add-substrate-artificial-reef","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_methodology/add-substrate-artificial-reef","title":"Add Substrate - Artificial Reef","description":null,"image":null}}],"disturbanceTypes":[],"impactTypes":[{"__typename":"Platform_ImpactType","id":"65d594481368b052bf6ff898","name":"Ecological","slug":"ecological","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_impact-type/ecological","title":"Ecological","description":{"id":"65d594481368b052bf6ff898_description","text":"Restored ecosystem attributes such as habitat and associated biodiversity"},"image":null}}],"totalCost":null,"capitalCost":null,"planningCost":null,"constructionCost":null,"inKindCost":null,"monitoringCost":null,"maintenanceCost":null,"costCurrency":null,"costYear":null,"citation":null,"ecologicalPrinciples":[{"__typename":"Platform_EcologicalPrinciple","id":"65d594461368b052bf6ff879","name":"4. 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Seeks The Highest Level Of Ecosystem Recovery Possible","slug":"6-seeks-the-highest-level-of-ecosystem-recovery-possible","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_ecological-principle/6-seeks-the-highest-level-of-ecosystem-recovery-possible","title":"Seeks The Highest Level Of Ecosystem Recovery Possible","description":{"id":"65d594461368b052bf6ff87b_description","text":"Ecological restoration aims for the highest practicable level of recovery appropriate to the circumstances."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_EcologicalPrinciple","id":"65d594461368b052bf6ff87c","name":"7. Gains Cumulative Value When Applied At Large Scales","slug":"7-gains-cumulative-value-when-applied-at-large-scales","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_ecological-principle/7-gains-cumulative-value-when-applied-at-large-scales","title":"Gains Cumulative Value When Applied At Large Scales","description":{"id":"65d594461368b052bf6ff87c_description","text":"Ecological restoration projects can have beneficial\noutcomes regardless of their spatial scale. However, many ecosystem processes operate at larger spatial scales, such as the watershed or basin level, and scaling-up restoration actions is required to address some ecological and global sustainability needs."},"image":null}}],"indicatorValues":[{"__typename":"Platform_IndicatorValue","id":"6a1e73c43d26cc88fe749fdb","value":null,"startValue":"0","endValue":"1.35","numericValue":0,"numericStartValue":0,"numericEndValue":1.35,"indicator":{"__typename":"Platform_Indicator","id":"65d593f11368b052bf6fed86","name":"Dry Weight Kelp (g DW/m2)","title":"Dry Weight Kelp","slug":"dry-weight-kelp-g-dw-m-2","precision":null,"unit":{"id":"65d5943f1368b052bf6ff83c","slug":"dry-weight-density-g-dw-m-2","prefix":null,"suffix":"g DW/m2","valueType":{"id":"65d5943f1368b052bf6ff84d","slug":"number"}}}}]},{"__typename":"Platform_Observation","startDate":"2000-07-01","endDate":"2001-06-01","id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9","name":"Observation - {{parent.name}} - Macrocystis pyrifera 2001-06-01","slug":"observation-parent-name-macrocystis-pyrifera-2001-06-01","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_observation/observation-parent-name-macrocystis-pyrifera-2001-06-01","title":"Observation - {{parent.name}} - Macrocystis pyrifera 2001-06-01","description":null,"image":null},"observationNumber":null,"areaOfRestoration":2.24,"distanceToNearestKelpForestInMetres":499.99999,"actionSummary":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_actionSummary","text":"Construction of an artificial reef complex in three stages near a natural reef, with limited outplanting of laboratory-reared giant kelp to supplement natural colonisation. The reef was monitored for 3–4 years following construction of each phase.\n\nGiant kelp spores were cultured on braided nylon lines under laboratory conditions until embryonic sporophytes (~1 mm) developed. The seeded line segments were attached to polyvinyl chloride plates and outplanted to 14 additional Phase 1 modules in June–July 2000 (778 units total). In Phase 1, approximately 2 ha of low-relief (<1 m tall) artificial reef at 13–16 m depth were constructed as 14 additional modules (two per block across seven blocks), using quarried rock boulders and concrete rubble, with equal representation of each substrate type within each block.\n\n"},"lessonsLearned":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_lessonsLearned","text":"Following physical habitat creation, natural kelp colonization and succession can be rapid and effective when stressors are alleviated, often outperforming seeding and transplanting, which are costly and uncertain.\n"},"projectImpacts":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_projectImpacts","text":"The method used for outplanting embryonic giant kelp to the ar tificial reef in this study was relatively successful in that kelp survived for at least 11 months on 66% of the outplant units installed. Despite this level of success, outplanting proved unnecessary due to the wide spread natural colonization by giant kelp the first year after the artificial reef was constructed. This finding is important from a restoration context because the ef fort and expense involved in culturing kelp in the lab oratory and in fabricating and installing the outplant units in the field were substantial. That this effort in volved only 14 of 56 modules covering ~20% of 10 ha of the Phase 1 reef and produced an average plant density (0.02 · m−2) that was ~75 times lower than the average density of natural recruits.\n"},"disturbanceDescription":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_disturbanceDescription","text":""},"recordedBy":[{"__typename":"Platform_Person","id":"69ccb3a9afcecd4cb4810e6a","slug":"emily-clout","name":"Emily Clout","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_person/emily-clout","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/person/emily-clout_photo__Linkedin_photo_ue6akr","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1779343632/kelp-forest-alliance/person/emily-clout_photo__Linkedin_photo_ue6akr.png","url2x":null}}}],"species":[{"__typename":"Platform_Species","id":"65d594551368b052bf6ffb30","slug":"macrocystis-pyrifera","name":"Macrocystis pyrifera","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_species/macrocystis-pyrifera","image":{"id":"image_kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi","url":"https://res.cloudinary.com/shapeable/image/upload/v1668995200/kelp-forest-alliance/banner/species-macrocystis_image__genus-macrocystis_oshoxi.jpg","url2x":null}}}],"transplantAdherenceMethod":null,"transplantLifeStage":null,"transplantSource":null,"causeOfDecline":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_causeOfDecline","text":""},"reasons":[],"objective":{"id":"6a1e75783d26cc88fe749ff9_objective","text":""},"motivations":[{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5","name":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","slug":"increasing-ecosystem-services","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/increasing-ecosystem-services","title":"Increasing Ecosystem Services","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e5_description","text":"Kelp forests provide a myriad of ecosystem services and regrowing them helps return fisheries, nutrient cycling, carbon capture, and recreational experiences to waters where they have been lost."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4","name":"Improving Methodologies","slug":"improving-methodologies","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/improving-methodologies","title":"Improving Methodologies","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e4_description","text":"Restoration is a technical process and we are still determining the best approaches to restore kelp forests, your restoration project may be motivated by the desire to refine your methods and learn more about how to effectively conduct restoration."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2","name":"Answering Scientific Questions","slug":"answering-scientific-questions","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/answering-scientific-questions","title":"Answering Scientific Questions","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e2_description","text":"Restoring an ecosystem system can also create the opportunity to conduct scientific research and answer questions about kelp forests grow, respond to their environment, and interact with the many other seaweeds and animals that share the ocean with them."},"image":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Motivation","id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e6","name":"Remediating Environmental Damage","slug":"remediating-environmental-damage","openGraph":{"id":"openGraph_motivation/remediating-environmental-damage","title":"Remediating Environmental Damage","description":{"id":"65d5944a1368b052bf6ff8e6_description","text":"Some projects may be motivated to offset damages incurred by pollution or construction events. 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