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The latter can be especially useful for improving general recommendations for kelp restoration practices, such as site selection, restoration methods, or appropriate goals and timelines. These ‘programmatic’ improvements are especially important for kelp forest restoration, given the relative infancy of the practice and the need to better understand and refine the efficacy, effort, and cost-effectiveness of the various restoration approaches (chapter 5).\n\n## 6.1 Why monitor?\n\nThe monitoring of restoration projects is generally conducted to achieve two separate but interconnected objectives. First, monitoring is needed to understand whether the initial restoration action was implemented as intended: so called implementation monitoring. The core purpose is to evaluate the immediate restoration method or action (chapter 5). Implementation monitoring may therefore focus on kelp-specific metrics (e.g., the number of kelp transplanted) but might also assess other organisms (e.g., the area harvested of urchins) and even technical/construction metrics (e.g., kilograms of seeded gravel deployed; number of artificial reefs installed). This type of monitoring may seem obvious; however, it can be valuable when working with commercial contractors (especially for larger-scale projects) or communicating early milestones and deliverables to funders and regulators. This type of monitoring is also critical in adaptively improving restoration techniques: for example, adjusting the volume/density of seeded gravel based on kelp growth and survival from previous efforts. Accordingly, the second monitoring type is performance monitoring, which is used to evaluate the trajectory of kelp forest recovery and whether the restoration activity is achieving its desired objective(s). Performance monitoring tends to focus on ecosystem and environmental conditions (e.g., fish assemblages; sedimentation/turbidity) in addition to the kelp themselves (e.g. recruitment of juvenile kelp). \n\n## 6.2 Key considerations when designing and implementing a monitoring program \n\nPerformance monitoring needs to occur iteratively and over a longer period than implementation monitoring and ideally should begin *before* the restoration action (further details below). Monitoring should also occur long enough to encompass both short (<1 year) and medium term (>1–5 years) goals, especially since the recovery of kelp forests and their ecosystem services can take many years [1](/citation/Cit-128) [2](/citation/Cit-129) [3](/citation/Cit-002). Implementation monitoring typically occurs over shorter timeframes but may be iterative and over extended periods when projects have multiple phases or staged restoration actions.\n\nRegardless of the monitoring type, several key concepts are important for any habitat restoration monitoring program. These include planning, establishing clear objectives, and using systematic and standardised monitoring protocols before and after the restoration intervention [4](/citation/Cit-130) [5](/citation/Cit-131).\n\n### 6.2.1 The importance of objectives and of systematic monitoring\n\nThe primary motivation for restoration is to improve or enhance a degraded habitat towards some preferred state, as defined by a ‘reference’ ecosystem and the primary objective(s) (chapter 4). A critical, but often overlooked, first step of any restoration project is therefore to identify the objectives or reference conditions that determine restoration success. A reference ecosystem or site would ideally be a healthy, local, natural kelp forest that is representative of the restoration objectives, although a reference model may be developed in those instances when a physical site is not available (chapter 4). \n\nEssentially, these objectives and reference conditions become targets for the restoration program and are critical in guiding what monitoring criteria or metrics will be measured (Table 1). Having clear objectives also ensures the most efficient use of monitoring resources, and can aid adaptive management or flexible decision-making, which allow for modifications and improvements to restoration programs already underway.\n\nTo fully assess whether a project is meeting its objectives, it is necessary to conduct systematic monitoring *before* and *after* the restoration action at the restoration or *impact* site itself, but also at a *control* site. For kelp restoration projects, the control site would likely be an unrestored area that represents the before or pre-restoration conditions (e.g., bare or degraded reef). This is a so called Before-After-Control-Impact (BACI) design (e.g. Northern California: Bull kelp & Haida Gwaii: Gwaii Haanas), and together with the *reference* site as a target, allows fair comparison between different sites and their conditions over time and accurate evaluation of restoration effectiveness [6](/citation/Cit-132) [7](/citation/Cit-131). Fundamentally, this approach allows the evaluation of any improvements at the restoration site relative to the control location(s), but also the trajectory of recovery and how the restored site is performing compared to the reference site or conditions. To enable fair comparisons, control and natural reference sites should have physical characteristics similar to the restoration site (e.g., flow, wave action, tidal range, salinity, water temperature, substrate type, water depth). Lastly, when pre-restoration monitoring is not possible, the comparisons between the restored and control site(s) become even more critical, as is the need to supplement any findings with comparisons to a reference kelp forest, where possible.\n\nImplementing systematic, reproducible, pre- and post-restoration monitoring also allows for comparison of results across projects, since it eliminates the potential that observed changes are simply due to a difference in monitoring methods. Comparisons across projects can aid assessment of programmatic and/or landscape scale outcomes and help untangle the reasons behind success and failure across different locations. Well-planned monitoring programs also enable data collection to address research questions, which can apply across broader spatial scales and promote general improvements in kelp forest restoration methods and outcomes.\n\n<ImageAsset slug=\"guidebook-06-02-1-ralph-pace\" />\n\n### 6.2.2 Seasonality and monitoring\n\nAn important, but sometimes overlooked, consideration for habitat monitoring programs is the seasonality and frequency of sampling. Seasonal changes can cause natural variations in environmental and biological metrics that might be misinterpreted as impacts from a restoration activity (e.g., animal presence/absence, changes in water quality). Seasonality also directly influences the kelp themselves, including their reproductive cycles, and patterns of growth and perennial/annual survival. As such, it is important that monitoring of specific metrics is relevant and aligned with seasonal patterns. Likewise, the frequency or regularity of monitoring must also be considered relative to the metric being assessed. For some metrics (e.g., adult canopy cover) lower-frequency sampling (e.g., monthly or seasonal) may be sufficient, whereas higher-frequency sampling (e.g., weekly) might be needed where responses may be more rapid or unknown (e.g., survival of outplanted juvenile kelp) (also see chapter 5).\n\n### 6.2.3 Citizen science monitoring programs\n\nWell-managed citizen science programs can help alleviate some of the financial and resource burdens of monitoring, while also facilitating valuable public engagement. When citizen scientists are trained and involved in monitoring, they can provide critical support for evaluating project performance and can serve as project ambassadors who help build community support and understanding of restoration projects. This can be especially useful for marine restoration projects, where limited accessibility and visibility can often cultivate an out-of-sight and out-of-mind mentality among the public. There are several citizen science projects linked with kelp forest restoration and monitoring programs, including urchin control for kelp restoration (e.g. Northern California: Bull kelp [8](/citation/Cit-133) [9](/citation/Cit-134) and mapping of kelp forest loss and recovery (Kelp Tracker, 2019; [10](/citation/Cit-135) [11](/citation/Cit-136)).\n\n## 6.3 Approaches to monitoring\n\nSeveral resources already describe a range of standardised monitoring methods for rocky reefs, kelp forests, and marine restoration projects (Box 6.1). Here we highlight some basic approaches to kelp forest monitoring that we consider most relevant for restoration practitioners. Nonetheless, no single monitoring approach or method is ideal for every application and circumstance, and so when developing a monitoring program, restoration projects should adopt several approaches that best suit their needs.\n\n| **Box 6.1­ Kelp forest and reef habitat monitoring resources** |\n| ------------------------------------------------------------ |\n| Effective monitoring of restoration guidebook [12](/citation/Cit-137) PISCO kelp forest sampling protocols [13](/citation/Cit-138) Puget Sound kelp forest ecological surveys [14](/citation/Cit-139) Reef Life Survey methods manual [15](/citation/Cit-140) |\n\n\n\n### 6.3.1 In-water\n\nIn-water surveys are perhaps the most widely used, detailed, and valuable of the monitoring approaches. These surveys can be conducted on the surface by snorkellers or SCUBA divers. Each method depends on a range of factors, including site access, water depth and clarity, and the biological/physical metrics being assessed (Table 6.1). In-water approaches do have limitations and restrictions, however, and can be difficult to scale to large areas due to their time- and resource-intensive nature. Divers may also require additional training and qualifications when using specialised breathing and technical equipment.\n\n### 6.3.2 Remote sensing\n\nRemote sensing uses technology to remotely monitor and survey habitats. Previously, this primarily relied on aerial imaging from aircraft and satellites [16](/citation/Cit-141) [17](/citation/Cit-142) [18](/citation/Cit-143). However, remote sensing and monitoring from drones is ever-increasing, as are remote approaches for in-water surveys such as Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) [19](/citation/Cit-144) [20](/citation/Cit-145) [21](/citation/Cit-146). Due to the remote nature of these approaches, they can be very effective at monitoring and observing very large areas (e.g., hundreds of kilometres), although they can have drawbacks regarding the level of detail and inability to survey many subtidal environments. Remote sensing approaches also typically require access to specialised technical equipment, training, and analyses, although the accessibility and availability of this equipment is rapidly improving. \n\n### 6.3.3 Coastal or on-water surveys\n\nThese cover a suite of on-the-water methods that do not involve in-water surveys. Often, these approaches use watercraft, such as kayaks or powered vessels, to survey kelp canopies or biological and physical metrics from the surface. Similar observations can also take place from land in areas where kelp forests (especially those with floating canopies) grow close to the coast. These might also incorporate beach surveys to assess drift seaweed or ‘wrack.’ These surveys can be low-cost and are not especially resource intensive, and they can also be conducted by relatively unskilled observers, which means they can be effective at covering wide spatial scales. However, these benefits can come at the expense of the level of detail, and there may be physical limitations in assessing some critical kelp forest parameters from the surface.\n\n| **Box 6.2 Recording project data**                           |\n| ------------------------------------------------------------ |\n| Projects must ensure that they archive their project survey information in order to track their progress over time, learn from past mistakes, and share information. Selecting which variables to record and the appropriate formatting can be a difficult process, but consistent data archives can help advance the field of restoration and promote knowledge exchange between projects. We stress that all project outcomes should be recorded, since we can often learn just as much from our failures as we do from successes. Data storage and sharing also allows for formal analysis of project outcomes. As with some other aspects of kelp restoration, data analysis can require specialised or technical skills, but these can likely be facilitated and provided by local regulators and managers, environmental consultants, or universities. The Kelp Forest Alliance has a standardized data sheet, and we recommend that projects use it as a template and upload the results of their project on the kelp forest alliance website ([kelpforestalliance.com](http://kelpforestalliance.com)). |\n\n\n\n**Table 6.1 Examples of monitoring metrics for kelp forest restoration.** These are broadly organised as either implementation or performance monitoring metrics, but this categorisation is not strict and can often become mixed. Moreover, some metrics (marked with *) can be considered ecosystem services (e.g., fisheries’ benefits, carbon cycling), which themselves may also be objectives or even methods of restoration (e.g. improvements in water quality) (chapter 4).\n\n| **Examples of common monitoring metrics**                    |\n| ------------------------------------------------------------ |\n| **Implementation monitoring**                                |\n| Area and/or amount of kelp transplanted Area and/or amount of seeded material deployed Area and/or amount of artificial substrate deployed Area and/or number of urchins removed |\n| **Performance monitoring**                                   |\n| **Kelp-specific** Area or percent cover of kelp canopy Height, density, biomass, or survivorship of individuals Recruitment of juveniles Presence/quantity of reproductive tissue (i.e., Sori/sporophylls) Indicators of health (e.g., fouling, pigmentation) |\n| **Associated community** Mobile organisms (e.g., fishes, large invertebrates) Sessile and/or benthic organisms (e.g., other seaweeds, sessile invertebrates) Epiphytes, micro-organisms Particular species-of-interest Positive (e.g., commercially valuable species)* Negative (e.g., destructive grazers/herbivores) Community production (i.e., nutrient and carbon cycling)* |\n| **Environmental/physical factors** Hydrodynamics (e.g., water flow, currents, wave action)* Subcanopy light levels Sedimentation* Turbidity* Water quality (especially nutrient levels)* Water temperature |\n\n<ImageAsset slug=\"guidebook-06-02-2-patrick-webster\" />"},"options":{"text":""},"openGraph":{"title":null,"description":{"plain":"This chapter outlines the motivations and methods for monitoring and evaluating kelp restoration efforts, including what to consider before monitoring; 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These programs will support efforts to collectively manage and reverse declines in ocean health and generate increased investment in the conservation of marine ecosystems and the communities they support. \n\nDespite a relatively long history in places like Japan, Korea, and California, the science and practice of kelp forest restoration is still in its infancy, and there remains a wealth of knowledge to be learned and shared from our collective failures and successes. To date, many projects have remained disconnected and had limited opportunities to share their experiences and learnings. The practice of kelp forest restoration will be greatly enhanced with collaborative, science-based efforts, where all stakeholders and custodians are engaged in decision-making and even short-term failures can yield insights that contribute to longer-term success. \n\nThe development of the Kelp Restoration Guidebook was informed by a series of global workshops, and an expert panel of authors and editors, with the aim to share and distil lessons learned from kelp restoration efforts globally. The intent is for this guidebook to serve as a starting point for practitioners, researchers, managers, and custodians to learn about the steps of restoration and access an active community of practice—all to improve the likelihood of success for future restoration projects. The broad lessons contained herein can then be extended and refined to suit local kelp species and circumstances. Ultimately, by cultivating an alliance of kelp forest restoration practitioners around the world, we can work together to ensure that kelp forests flourish in our planet’s changing seas. "},"children":[{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff10d","name":"3.0 The Human Elements: Communities and Partners in Kelp Restoration","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/3-0-the-human-elements-communities-and-partners-in-kelp-restoration","slug":"3-0-the-human-elements-communities-and-partners-in-kelp-restoration","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"This chapter serves as a guide to integrating social, cultural, and economic aspects into what are often ecologically focused restoration initiatives. The core themes discussed include: (1) the importance of engaging with communities and partners to collaborate, co-develop initiatives, and make decisions; (2) ways to identify the communities and partners needed in restoration initiatives; (3) specific avenues for engaging and communicating with diverse communities and interests."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter serves as a guide to integrating social, cultural, and economic aspects into what are often ecologically focused restoration initiatives. The core themes discussed include: (1) the importance of engaging with communities and partners to collaborate, co-develop initiatives, and make decisions; (2) ways to identify the communities and partners needed in restoration initiatives; (3) specific avenues for engaging and communicating with diverse communities and interests."},"orderNumber":3,"banner":{"name":"CH03 Ralph Pace","slug":"ch-03-ralph-pace","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff10f","name":"5.0 Kelp Forest Restoration in Action (Methods)","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/5-0-kelp-forest-restoration-in-action-methods","slug":"5-0-kelp-forest-restoration-in-action-methods","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"In this chapter we describe the approaches available for kelp restoration and emphasize that you will need to consider the best suited approach(es) for your particular project (Fig. 5.1). The selected methodology will depend on the expertise of your group, project budget, the stressors present, environmental conditions, and whether kelp can return naturally or needs re-introduction."}},"intro":{"text":"In this chapter we describe the approaches available for kelp restoration and emphasize that you will need to consider the best suited approach(es) for your particular project (Fig. 5.1). The selected methodology will depend on the expertise of your group, project budget, the stressors present, environmental conditions, and whether kelp can return naturally or needs re-introduction."},"orderNumber":5,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff111","name":"7.0 Future-Proofing Kelp Forest Restoration for Climate Change","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/7-0-future-proofing-kelp-forest-restoration-for-climate-change","slug":"7-0-future-proofing-kelp-forest-restoration-for-climate-change","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"Outlining the concept of ‘future-proofing’ in restoration, which encompasses a range of novel approaches in response to kelp loss due to ongoing climate change."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter outlines the concept of ‘future-proofing’ in restoration, which encompasses a range of novel approaches in response to kelp loss due to ongoing climate change. These situations are complex because the driver of kelp forest decline cannot be directly ameliorated, and so innovative solutions are needed to boost resilience and optimise restoration success."},"orderNumber":7,"banner":{"name":"CH07 Ralph Pace","slug":"ch-07-ralph-pace","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff113","name":"9.0 Restoration in Practice: Projects from Around the World (Summary)","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/9-0-restoration-in-practice-projects-from-around-the-world-summary","slug":"9-0-restoration-in-practice-projects-from-around-the-world-summary","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"The following are examples of kelp restoration in practice from around the world. They span a range of environments, approaches, and target species."}},"intro":{"text":"The following are examples of kelp restoration in practice from around the world. They span a range of environments, approaches, and target species."},"orderNumber":9,"banner":{"name":"CH09 Patrick Webster","slug":"ch-09-patrick-webster","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff110","name":"6.0 Monitoring and Evaluation","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/6-0-monitoring-and-evaluation","slug":"6-0-monitoring-and-evaluation","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"This chapter outlines the motivations and methods for monitoring and evaluating kelp restoration efforts, including what to consider before monitoring; important considerations when designing and implementing a monitoring program; and common methods for collecting kelp forest monitoring data."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter outlines the motivations and methods for monitoring and evaluating kelp restoration efforts, including what to consider before monitoring; important considerations when designing and implementing a monitoring program; and common methods for collecting kelp forest monitoring data."},"orderNumber":6,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff112","name":"8.0 Conclusion","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/8-0-conclusion","slug":"8-0-conclusion","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"We anticipate a bright future for the field of kelp forest restoration, one that will grow rapidly in response to changes in kelp forest dynamics around the world. 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Presenting a set of core questions to help address this decision-making process."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter concentrates on understanding whether restoration is needed and appropriate. It presents a set of core questions to help address this decision-making process, including: Have kelp forests declined in your area, and if so, why? Is restoration achievable, given the cause of kelp decline and the resources available? And what are the opportunities, risks, and challenges of restoration?"},"orderNumber":2,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff10e","name":"4.0 Getting Started with Restoration","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/4-0-getting-started-with-restoration","slug":"4-0-getting-started-with-restoration","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"This chapter details the first actionable steps to restore kelp forest habitat. It starts by focusing on planning and assessing feasibility for restoration, including identifying objectives and appropriate methods, permitting and biosecurity, and site selection; it then outlines project monitoring and evaluating measures of success, along with a strategy (or strategies) for scaling-up restoration pilot projects."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter details the first actionable steps to restore kelp forest habitat. It starts by focusing on planning and assessing feasibility for restoration, including identifying objectives and appropriate methods, permitting and biosecurity, and site selection; it then outlines project monitoring and evaluating measures of success, along with a strategy (or strategies) for scaling-up restoration pilot projects."},"orderNumber":4,"banner":null},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff116","name":"Appendix","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/appendix","slug":"appendix","title":"Appendix","subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"Here we provide further detail for those wishing to create a spore or gametophyte culture. The process is described for *Laminaria and Saccharina species* in the Atlantic Ocean and Ecklonia in Western Australia. The specifics will vary by species and region. Further reading on culturing is available in other documentation (section A.4)"}},"intro":{"text":"Here we provide further detail for those wishing to create a spore or gametophyte culture. The process is described for *Laminaria and Saccharina species* in the Atlantic Ocean and Ecklonia in Western Australia. The specifics will vary by species and region. Further reading on culturing is available in other documentation (section A.4)"},"orderNumber":10,"banner":{"name":"Guidebook cover","slug":"guidebook-cover","alternateText":null,"thumbnail":null}},{"__typename":"Platform_Page","id":"65d594091368b052bf6ff10b","name":"1.0 Introduction","path":"/kelp-restoration-guidebook/1-0-introduction","slug":"1-0-introduction","title":null,"subtitle":null,"pretitle":"Guidebook","openGraph":{"description":{"text":"Introducing kelp forests, their ecology, and the core themes of kelp forest restoration knowledge and practice."}},"intro":{"text":"This chapter introduces kelp forests, their ecology, and the core themes of kelp forest restoration knowledge and practice. 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